Self-Motivation and Positive Self-Talk

Lee A. Wilkinson, PhD, is a licensed and nationally certified school psychologist, and certified cognitive-behavioral therapist. He is author of the award winning books,  A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism and Asperger Syndrome in Schools and Overcoming Anxiety and Depression on the Autism Spectrum: A Self-Help Guide Using CBT. He is also editor of a text in the APA School Psychology Book Series,  Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Evidence-Based Assessment and Intervention in Schools. His latest book is A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Schools (2nd Edition).

Social Narratives for COVID-19

The Coronavirus, or COVID-19, may cause fear, anxiety, or confusion for many children and youth. While Social Narratives (SN) have been shown to be an effective strategy for children with autism, they are appropriate for individuals of any age who may be experiencing challenges with social communication. Social Narratives or stories can help alleviate fears and anxiety many children may be experiencing at this time and help them cope during the coming days and weeks.

https://www.iidc.indiana.edu/irca/articles/writing-and-using-social-narratives.html

Lee A. Wilkinson, PhD, is a licensed and nationally certified school psychologist, and certified cognitive-behavioral therapist. He is author of the award-winning books,  A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism and Asperger Syndrome in Schools and Overcoming Anxiety and Depression on the Autism Spectrum: A Self-Help Guide Using CBT. He is also editor of a text in the APA School Psychology Book Series,  Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Evidence-Based Assessment and Intervention in Schools. His latest book is A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Schools (2nd Edition).

Positive Behavior Support (PBS) Classroom Strategies for Autistic Students

Positive Behavior Support for Autistic Students 

The problem behaviors of children on the autism spectrum (ASD) are among the most challenging and stressful issues faced by many schools and parents. The current best practice in treating and preventing undesirable or challenging behaviors utilizes the principles and practices of positive behavior support (PBS). PBS is not a specific intervention per se, but rather a set of research-based strategies that are intended to decrease problem behaviors by designing effective environments and teaching students appropriate social and communication skills. PBS utilizes primary (school-wide), secondary (targeted group), and tertiary (individual) levels or tiers of intervention, with each tier providing an increasing level of intensity and support. 

 PBS Strategies in the Classroom

Other than families, teachers are the most influential resource for students with and without special needs. Although functional behavior assessment (FBA) and intensive individual support is recommended for students with serious and persistent challenging behaviors, teachers may prevent the possibility of problematic behavior through the implementation of class-wide and targeted group PBS strategies. For example, effective prevention of challenging social behavior can be addressed through arranging the classroom environment and/or by adapting instruction and the curriculum. Changing the classroom environment or instruction may lessen the triggers or events that set off the challenging behavior. Teaching effective social interaction and communication as replacements for challenging behavior is also a preventive strategy for improving little used student social interaction and communication skills. Teachers can model, demonstrate, coach, or role-play the appropriate interaction skills. They can teach students to ask for help during difficult activities or negotiate alternative times to finish work. Encouraging positive social interactions such as conversational skills will help students with challenging behavior to effectively obtain positive peer attention. The following are examples of PBS strategies for improving social skills and prosocial behaviors in the classroom (Vaughn, Duchnowski, Sheffield, & Kutash, 2005; Wilkinson, 2017). 

Initiating interactions. Teachers might notice that when a student with autism enters the classroom, group activity, or other social interaction, they may have particular difficulty greeting others students or starting a conversation. For example, they may joke, call another student a name, laugh, or say something inappropriate. In this situation, the student may have trouble initiating interactions or conversations. The teacher might talk to the student individually and offer suggestions for ways he or she can provide an appropriate greeting or introduce a topic of conversation. The student might then be asked to practice or role-play the desired behavior.

Example: “why don’t you ask students what they did last night, tell them about a TV show you watched, or ask if they finished their homework, rather than shouting or saying ‘Hey, Stupid.’ Other students in the class want to be your friend, but you make it difficult for them to talk with you. Let’s practice the next time the class begins a new group activity.”

Maintaining interactions. Many autistic students struggle to maintain a conversation (e.g.., turn taking). Some may dominate the conversation and make others feel that they have nothing to contribute, while other students may experience difficulty keeping up with the flow of conversation and asking questions. Students may also have limited topics of interest and discuss these topics repetitively.

Example: “I’ve noticed that other students cannot share their thoughts and ideas with you when you start a conversation because you do all the talking. It may seem to them that you don’t care what they have to say. Other students will be more willing to talk if you stop once you’ve stated your idea or opinion and allow them a turn to talk. When you stop, they know you are listening. You can say to them, “What do you think?” or “Has this ever happened to you?’”

Terminating interactions. Some students with autism may not know how to appropriately end a conversation. They may abruptly walk away, start talking with another student, or bluntly tell a student they don’t know what they’re talking about. Other students may interpret this as rude and impolite behavior. Teachers might point out to the student some ac­ceptable ways of ending a conversation.

Example: “You just walked away from that student when they were talking. Rather than walk away, you might say “‘I have to go now,’ ‘It’s time for my next class,’ ‘Or ‘I’ll see you later and we can finish our talk.’”

Recognizing body language. The recognition of body language or nonverbal cues is critical to successful social interactions. Autistic students typically have difficulty interpreting these cues from teachers or other students. Body language tells students when they violate a person’s personal space, a person needs to leave, or they need to change behavior. Teachers can incorporate these skills into their class time or school day.

Example: Before leaving the classroom, demonstrate  nonverbal cues by holding a finger to your lips and telling students that means “quiet,” a hand held up with palm facing outward means “wait” or “stop,” and both hands pushing downward means “slow down.” You may need to demonstrate facial expressions you use to “deliver messages” and what they mean. Other students can demonstrate nonverbal cues they use. When students move through the halls, you may want to teach them the “arms length” rule for personal space.

Transitions. Many students with autism have significant problems changing from one activity to the next or moving from one location to another. They may be easily upset by abrupt changes in routine and unable to estimate how much time is left to finish an activity and begin the next one. Poor executive function skills such as disorganization may also prevent them from putting materials away from the last activity or getting ready for the next activity. They may also need closure and preparation time for the transition. Problems arise if the teacher tries to push them to transition at the last minute.

Example: About 10 minutes prior to the transition, refer to the classroom schedule and announce when the bell will ring or when the next activity will begin. Provide a 5-minute and then a 1-minute warning. This countdown helps students finish assignments or end favorite activities. For students that have difficulty getting started after a transition, place assign­ment folders on their desks so that they have their assignments and don’t have to wait for instructions or materials. They can use the same folder to submit assignments (the folders can be left on their desks at the end of the period).

Conclusion 

Students on the autism spectrum often lack the social skills to communicate and interact effectively with peers and adults. They may use challenging or disruptive behavior to communicate their needs. These examples illustrate how PBS provides a proactive framework for assessing social interaction and communication needs and for teaching new, effective skills that replace the challenging behavior. When used consistently, these strategies fit within the framework of the classroom and can help promote positive student behavior.

Adapted from Wilkinson, L. A. (2017). A best practice guide to assessment and intervention for autism spectrum disorder in schools. London and Philadelphia: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

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Key References and Further Reading 

Alberto, P., & Troutman, A. (2006). Applied behavior analysis for teachers (7th edition). New York, NY: Prentice-Hall.

Crone, D. A., Horner, R. H., & Hawken, L. S. (2004). Responding to problem behavior in schools: The behavior education program. New York: Guilford Press.

Crone, D. A., & Horner, R. H. (2003). Building positive behavior support systems in schools: Functional behavioral assessment. New York: Guilford.

Dunlap, G., Iovannone, R., Kincaid, D., Wilson, K., Christiansen, K., Strain, P., & English, C., (2010). Prevent-Teach-Reinforce: A school-based model of positive behavior support. Baltimore: Brookes.

Horner, R. H., Sugai, G., Todd, A. W., & Lewis-Palmer, T. (2005). School-wide positive behavior support. In L. Bambara & L. Kern (Eds.), Individualized supports for students with problem behaviors: Designing positive behavior plans (pp. 359-390). New York: Guilford Press.

Martella, R. C., Nelson, J. R., & Marchand-Martella, N. E. (2003). Managing disruptive behaviors in the schools: A schoolwide, classroom, and individualized social learning approach. Boston, MA: Allyn and Bacon, Inc.

OSEP Technical Assistance Center on Positive Behavioral Interventions and Supports. http://www.pbis.org/default.aspx 

Sprague, J. R., & Walker, H. M. (2005). Safe and healthy schools: Practical prevention strategies. New York, NY: Guilford.

Sprick, R.S., & Garrison, M. (2008). Interventions: Evidence-based behavioral strategies for individual students. Eugene, OR: Pacific Northwest Publishing.

Vaughn, B., Duchnowski, A., Sheffield, S., & Kutash, K., (2005). Positive behavior support: A classroom-wide approach to successful student achievement and interactions. Department of Child and Family Studies, Louis de la Parte Florida Mental Health Institute. Tampa, FL: University of South Florida.

Wilkinson, L. A. (2017). A best practice guide to assessment and intervention for autism spectrum disorder in schools. London: Jessica Kingsley Publishers.

Lee A. Wilkinson, PhD, is a licensed and nationally certified school psychologist, and certified cognitive-behavioral therapist. He is author of the award-winning books,  A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism and Asperger Syndrome in Schools and Overcoming Anxiety and Depression on the Autism Spectrum: A Self-Help Guide Using CBT. He is also editor of a text in the APA School Psychology Book Series, Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Evidence-Based Assessment and Intervention in Schools. His latest book is A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Schools (2nd Edition).

Fears and Phobias on the Autism Spectrum

Fears and Phobias in Autistic Children 

Anxiety disorders are a frequent co-occurring (comorbid) problem for children and youth with autism spectrum disorder (ASD). Although prevalence rates vary from 11% to 84%, most studies indicate that approximately one-half of children with ASD meet criteria for at least one anxiety disorder. Of all types of anxiety disorders, specific phobia is the most common, with prevalence estimates ranging from 31% to 64%. In contrast, estimates of phobias in children in the general population range from 5% to 18%.

Unusual fears have long been recognized as a feature of autism. In fact, 70 years ago, Leo Kanner wrote in his initial account of autism that “loud noises and moving objects” are “reacted to with horror” and things like “tricycles, swings, elevators, vacuum cleaners, running water, gas burners, mechanical toys, egg beaters, even the wind could on occasions bring about a major panic.” We now know that children with autism perceive, experience, and respond to the world very differently than children without autism. Experiences that may be tolerable for most typical children might be frightening, disturbing, or irritating for a child with ASD. Children with autism may also be unresponsive to other experiences (e.g., insensitive to pain), may not show stranger or separation anxiety, and may be seemingly unaware of obvious dangers (e.g., running into traffic).

Research

Previous research examining the types and frequencies of fears in children with autism have found odd and intense fears in approximately 40% of children with autism, whereas unusual fears were present in only 0–5% of children without autism, including children with a learning disability, language disorder, ADHD, intellectual disability, and typical development. Studies also indicate that while some of the most common fears for children with autism and typical development overlap, children with autism have frequent fears that were not amongst the most frequently reported for typical children. These include fear of thunderstorms, large crowds, and closed spaces.

A large scale study reported in Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders investigated unusual fears in a sample of 1033 children ages 1-16 with autism. The purpose of the study was to categorize and determine specific types of unusual fears in children with autism as well as identify variables related to the presence or absence of these fears. Unusual fears were reported in 421 (40.8%) of the 1033 children with autism. A total of 487 unusual fears were reported, representing 92 different fears. The most common unusual fears in three or more children with were toilets, elevators, vacuum cleaners, thunderstorms, heights, and visual media (characters in or segments of movies, television shows, commercials, or computer games). Many children also had common childhood fears and phobias (including fear of dogs, bugs, spiders, snakes, the dark, doctors, barbers, monsters, people in costumes, mechanical toys, sleeping alone, fire, and swimming), which increased the overall proportion of children with autism who had intense fears and phobias to more than 50%.

Categories and Frequency of Unusual Fears

The most frequently reported categories of unusual fears were:

§        Mechanical things (Blenders, can openers, cassette players, ceiling fans, clothes, dryers, drills, electric toothbrushes, exhaust fans, hair dryers, hand dryers, leaf blowers, toilets, vacuum cleaners, washing machines, water fountains, wheelchairs, windshield wipers) 

§        Heights (Elevators, escalators, heights, steps) 

§        Weather (Cloudy weather, natural disasters such as floods, droughts, hurricanes, tornadoes, rain, thunderstorms, wind) 

§        Non-mechanical things (Balloons, black television screen, buttons, clam shells, crayons, dolls, drains, electrical outlets, eyes on toys garden hose, glass tabletops, glow in dark stars, gum under table, hair in bathtub, lights, mole on person’s face, moon, shadows, strings, stuffed animals, swinging or rocking things, tall things, things on ceiling, vent on house)

§        Places (Bathroom, bedroom, certain house or restaurant, closed or small spaces, garage, large or open space, room with doors unlocked or open)

§        Worries - Events (car accident, heart attack, natural disaster, germs or contamination, running out of certain foods, running out of gas, something falling over, toilet overflowing, tree falling on house)

§        Visual media (Characters in or segments of movies, television shows, commercials, computer games)

Types and Frequency of Unusual Fears

Unusual fears reported by parents fell into two categories: (1) uncommon fears not typically reported in children in the general population or in children with specific phobias and (2) fears that have been reported in studies of children without autism but which were considered unusual by parents because of their intensity, obsessiveness, irrationality, or interference with functioning. Of the total number reported, the most common unusual fears in three or more children with autism were:

§         Toilets

§         Elevators

§         Vacuum cleaners

§         Thunderstorms

§         Tornadoes

§         Heights

§         Visual media 

Associated variables

Children with and without unusual fears did not differ in age, IQ level, mental age, autism severity, race or parent occupation. Of all the demographic variables, only female gender was associated with the presence or absence of unusual fears. More girls had unusual fears (48.8%) than did boys (39.1%). This is consistent with the earlier studies indicating that girls with autism had more fears than boys and with general population studies showing that girls had more fears and higher fear survey scores than boys. The finding that children with and without unusual fears did not differ in age suggests that unlike most typical children, those with autism may not outgrow unusual fears. Likewise, the findings regarding autism severity and parent occupation suggest that the presence of unusual and intense fears may be present across SES and the entire autism spectrum. The authors note that the lack of demographic differences in the study may suggest a neurobiological basis for fears overriding developmental and environmental influences.

Implications

Research suggests that it is critical to assess for unusual and intense fears in children with ASD because they are common and can interfere significantly with functioning. Specific fears and phobias have been cited as frequent anxiety triggers/stressors for children with ASD. The impact of anxiety includes personal distress in children, parents, and siblings, increase in challenging behavior and stereotyped behaviors, restriction of activities/opportunities and negative impact on quality of life for child and family. For example, children with autism may avoid necessary life situations (e.g., refusing to go to school because there may be a fire drill) or be in a constant state of anxiety and unable to function optimally because of their fears.

Identification of specific fears and phobias can help educators and interventionists improve programs and services for children on the autism spectrum. This information may be especially useful for clinicians, particularly those utilizing CBT as a treatment approach for children and youth with ASD. There is evidence to suggest that the interventions used to treat intense fears and phobias in children without autism (exposure, desensitization, modeling, shaping, and reinforcement) might also be effective for children who have autism. Lastly, further research is needed to investigate why some specific unusual fears are common to autism but not the general population. As more individuals with ASD communicate about their fears and reasons for their idiosyncrasies, we may come to a better understanding of autism and its symptoms.

Mayes, S. D., Calhoun, S. L., Aggarwal, R., Baker, C., Mathapati, S., Molitoris, S., & Mayes, R. D. (2013). Unusual fears in children with autism. Research in Autism Spectrum Disorders, 7, 151–158.

Kanner, L. (1943). Autistic disturbances of affective contact. Nervous Child, 2, 217–250.

Lee A. Wilkinson, PhD, is a licensed and nationally certified school psychologist, and certified cognitive-behavioral therapist. He is author of the award-winning books,  A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism and Asperger Syndrome in Schools and Overcoming Anxiety and Depression on the Autism Spectrum: A Self-Help Guide Using CBT. He is also editor of a text in the APA School Psychology Book Series,  Autism Spectrum Disorder in Children and Adolescents: Evidence-Based Assessment and Intervention in Schools. His latest book is A Best Practice Guide to Assessment and Intervention for Autism Spectrum Disorder in Schools (2nd Edition).